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Public Health Leadership Society
© 2002
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health
Public Health
Leadership Society
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health
Version 2.2
Table of Contents
Component Page
Preamble 1
Values and Beliefs Underlying the Code 2
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health 4
Supplemental Materials:
Rationale for a Public Health Code of Ethics 5
Notes on the Individual Ethical Principles 7
Correspondence of the 12 Ethical Principles 9
with the 10 Essential Public Health Services
Contact for Further Information and Feedback 10
Acknowlegements 11
©2002 Public Health Leadership Society
Table of Contents
Preamble
This code of ethics states key principles of the ethical practice of public health. An
accompanying statement lists the key values and beliefs inherent to a public health perspective
upon which the Ethical Principles are based. Public health is understood within these
principles as what we, as a society, do collectively to assure the conditions for people to be
healthy. We affirm the World Health Organization’s understanding of health as a state of
complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease
or infirmity.1
The Code is neither a new nor an exhaustive system of health ethics. Rather, it
highlights the ethical principles that follow from the distinctive characteristics of public
health. A key belief worth highlighting, and which underlies several of the Ethical
Principles, is the interdependence of people. This interdependence is the essence of
community. Public health not only seeks to assure the health of whole communities
but also recognizes that the health of individuals is tied to their life in the community.
The Code is intended principally for public and other institutions in the United
States that have an explicit public health mission. Institutions and individuals that are outside
of traditional public health, but recognize the effects of their work on the health of the
community, may also find the Code relevant and useful.
1 From The Future of Public Health, Institute of Medicine, 1988.
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health, Version 2.2
© 2002 Public Health Leadership Society 1
Values and Beliefs Underlying the Code
The following values and beliefs are key assumptions inherent to a public health perspective. They
underlie the 12 Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health.
Health
1. Humans have a right to the resources necessary for health. The Public Health Code of Ethics
affirms Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which states in part
“Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of
himself and his family…”
Community
2. Humans are inherently social and interdependent. Humans look to each other for companionship
in friendships, families, and community; and rely upon one another for safety and survival.
Positive relationships among individuals and positive collaborations among institutions are
signs of a healthy community. The rightful concern for the physical individuality of humans
and one’s right to make decisions for oneself must be balanced against the fact that each person’s
actions affect other people.
3. The effectiveness of institutions depends heavily on the public’s trust. Factors that contribute to
trust in an institution include the following actions on the part of the institution: communication;
truth telling; transparency (i.e., not concealing information); accountability; reliability;
and reciprocity. One critical form of reciprocity and communication is listening to as well as
speaking with the community.
4. Collaboration is a key element to public health. The public health infrastructure of a society is
composed of a wide variety of agencies and professional disciplines. To be effective, they
must work together well. Moreover, new collaborations will be needed to rise to new public
health challenges.
5. People and their physical environment are interdependent. People depend upon the resources of
their natural and constructed environments for life itself. A damaged or unbalanced natural
environment, and a constructed environment of poor design or in poor condition, will have an
adverse effect on the health of people. Conversely, people can have a profound effect on their
natural environment through consumption of resources and generation of waste.
6. Each person in a community should have an opportunity to contribute to public discourse.
Contributions to discourse may occur through a direct or a representative system of government.
In the process of developing and evaluating policy, it is important to discern whether all who
would like to contribute to the discussion have an opportunity to do so, even though expressing
a concern does not mean that it will necessarily be addressed in the final policy.
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health, Version 2.2
© 2002 Public Health Leadership Society 2
7. Identifying and promoting the fundamental requirements for health in a community are of primary
concern to public health. The way in which a society is structured is reflected in the health of a
community. The primary concern of public health is with these underlying structural aspects.
While some important public health programs are curative in nature, the field as a whole must
never lose sight of underlying causes and prevention. Because fundamental social structures
affect many aspects of health, addressing the fundamental causes rather than more proximal
causes is more truly preventive.
Bases for Action
8. Knowledge is important and powerful. We are to seek to improve our understanding of health
and the means of protecting it through research and the accumulation of knowledge. Once
obtained, there is a moral obligation in some instances to share what is known. For example,
active and informed participation in policy-making processes requires access to relevant information.
In other instances, such as information provided in confidence, there is an obligation
to protect information.
9. Science is the basis for much of our public health knowledge. The scientific method provides a relatively
objective means of identifying the factors necessary for health in a population, and for
evaluating policies and programs to protect and promote health. The full range of scientific
tools, including both quantitative and qualitative methods, and collaboration among the sciences
is needed.
10. People are responsible to act on the basis of what they know. Knowledge is not morally neutral and
often demands action. Moreover, information is not to be gathered for idle interest. Public
health should seek to translate available information into timely action. Often, the action
required is research to fill in the gaps of what we don’t know.
11. Action is not based on information alone. In many instances, action is required in the absence of
all the information one would like. In other instances, policies are demanded by the fundamental
value and dignity of each human being, even if implementing them is not calculated to be
optimally efficient or cost-beneficial. In both of these situations, values inform the application
of information or the action in the absence of information.
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health, Version 2.2
© 2002 Public Health Leadership Society
Values and Beliefs Underlying the Code
3
Principles of the Ethical
Practice of Public Health
1. Public health should address principally the fundamental causes of disease and requirements for
health, aiming to prevent adverse health outcomes.
2. Public health should achieve community health in a way that respects the rights of individuals in
the community.
3. Public health policies, programs, and priorities should be developed and evaluated through
processes that ensure an opportunity for input from community members.
4. Public health should advocate and work for the empowerment of disenfranchised community members,
aiming to ensure that the basic resources and conditions necessary for health are accessible to all.
5. Public health should seek the information needed to implement effective policies and programs
that protect and promote health.
6. Public health institutions should provide communities with the information they have that is
needed for decisions on policies or programs and should obtain the community’s consent for
their implementation.
7. Public health institutions should act in a timely manner on the information they have within the
resources and the mandate given to them by the public.
8. Public health programs and policies should incorporate a variety of approaches that anticipate
and respect diverse values, beliefs, and cultures in the community.
9. Public health programs and policies should be implemented in a manner that most enhances the
physical and social environment.
10. Public health institutions should protect the confidentiality of information that can bring harm
to an individual or community if made public. Exceptions must be justified on the basis of the
high likelihood of significant harm to the individual or others.
11. Public health institutions should ensure the professional competence of their employees.
12. Public health institutions and their employees should engage in collaborations and affiliations in
ways that build the public’s trust and the institution’s effectiveness.
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health, Version 2.2
© 2002 Public Health Leadership Society 4
The mandate to assure and protect the health of the public is an inherently moral one. It carries
with it an obligation to care for the well being of others and it implies the possession of an element
of power in order to carry out the mandate. The need to exercise power to ensure health and at the
same time to avoid the potential abuses of power are at the crux of public health ethics.
Until recently, the ethical nature of public health has been implicitly assumed rather than explicitly
stated. Increasingly, however, society is demanding explicit attention to ethics. This demand arises
from: technological advances that create new possibilities, and with them, new ethical dilemmas;
new challenges to health such as the advent of human immunodeficiency virus; abuses of power,
such as the Tuskegee study of syphilis; and an increasingly pluralistic society in which we can no
longer simply adopt the values from a single culture or religion, but we must work out our common
values in the midst of diversity.
Historically, medical institutions have been more explicit about the ethical elements of their practice
than have public health institutions. The concerns of public health are not fully consonant with
those of medicine, however, thus we cannot simply translate the principles of medical ethics to public
health. For example, in contrast to medicine, public health is concerned more with populations
than with individuals, and more with prevention than with cure. Thus, the purview of public health
includes those who are not presently ill, and for whom the risks and benefits of medical care are not
immediately relevant.
What does a code of ethics accomplish?
A code of ethics for public health clarifies the distinctive elements of public health and the ethical
principles that follow from or respond to those distinct aspects. It makes clear to populations and
communities the ideals of the public health institutions that serve them. A code of ethics thus serves
as a goal to guide public health institutions and practitioners and as a standard to which they can be
held accountable.
Codes of ethics are typically relatively brief; they are not designed to provide a means of untangling
convoluted ethical issues. That process requires deliberation and debate over the multitude of factors
relevant to a particular issue. Nor does a code typically provide a means of resolving a particular dispute.
It does, however, provide those in a dispute over a public health concern with a list of issues
and principles that should be considered in the dispute.
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health, Version 2.2
© 2002 Public Health Leadership Society
Rationale for a Public Health Code of Ethics
5
A living document
Many public health professionals, most of them associated with the Public Health Leadership
Society (PHLS), came together to initiate the process of writing the Code. Represented on the
PHLS Public Health Code of Ethics Committee are public health professionals from local and state
public health, public health academia, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and
the American Public Health Association (APHA). They were formally encouraged in this effort during
a town hall meeting attended by representatives from a wide variety of public health organizations
at the 2000 APHA annual meeting. A draft code was reviewed and critiqued in May 2001 by
25 public health professionals and ethicists in a CDC-funded meeting held in Kansas City. A
revised version of the Code was presented for discussion at another town hall meeting at the 2001
APHA annual meeting. Prior to the meeting, the Code was published on the APHA Website and an
e-mail address was provided for reactions and feedback. The present code reflects the input and discussion
from all of these forums. It is now being presented to various organizations for adoption or
endorsement. Even so, there are ongoing opportunities to provide feedback (see page 10 for details),
and an updating of the Code is anticipated. Tools for teaching about the Code and ensuring its
practical utility are currently in the making.
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health, Version 2.2
© 2002 Public Health Leadership Society
Rationale for a Public Health Code of Ethics
6
Notes on the Individual Ethical Principles
1. This Principle gives priority not only to prevention of disease or promotion of health, but also
at the most fundamental levels. Yet the principle acknowledges that public health will also concern
itself with some immediate causes and some curative roles. For example, the treatment of
curable infections is important to the prevention of transmission of infection to others. The
term “public health” is used here and elsewhere in the Code to represent the entire field of public
health, including but not limited to government institutions and schools of public health.
2. This Principle identifies the common need in public health to weigh the concerns of both the
individual and the community. There is no ethical principle that can provide a solution to this
perennial tension in public health. We can highlight, however, that the interest of the community
is part of the equation, and for public health it is the starting place in the equation; it is the
primary interest of public health. Still, there remains the need to pay attention to the rights of
individuals when exercising the police powers of public health.
3. A process for input can be direct or representative. In either case, it involves processes that work
to establish a consensus. While democratic processes can be cumbersome, once a policy is established,
public health institutions have the mandate to respond quickly to urgent situations.
Input from the community should not end once a policy or program is implemented. There
remains a need for the community to evaluate whether the institution is implementing the program
as planned and whether it is having the intended effect. The ability for the public to provide
this input and sense that it is being heard is critical in the development and maintenance of
public trust in the institution.
4. This Principle speaks to two issues: ensuring that all in a community have a voice; and
underscoring that public health has a particular interest in those members of a community
that are underserved or marginalized. While a society cannot provide resources for health at
a level enjoyed by the wealthy, it can ensure a decent minimum standard of resources. The
Code cannot prescribe action when it comes to ensuring the health of those who are marginalized
because of illegal behaviors. It can only underscore the principle of ensuring the
resources necessary for health to all. Each institution must decide for itself what risks it will
take to achieve that.
5. This Principle is a mandate to seek information to inform actions. The importance of information
to evaluate programs is also implied.
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health, Version 2.2
© 2002 Public Health Leadership Society 7
Notes on the Individual Ethical Principles
6. This Principle is linked to the third one about democratic processes. Such processes depend
upon an informed community. The information obtained by public health institutions is to be
considered public property and made available to the public. This statement is also the community-
level corollary of the individual-level ethical principle of informed consent. Particularly
when a program has not been duly developed with evaluation, the community should be
informed of the potential risks and benefits, and implementation of the program should be
premised on the consent of the community (though this principle does not specify how that
consent should be obtained).
7. Public health is active rather than passive, and information is not to be gathered for idle interest.
Yet the ability to act is conditioned by available resources and opportunities, and by competing
needs. Moreover, the ability to respond to urgent situations depends on having established a
mandate to do so through the democratic processes of Ethical Principle number three.
8. Public health programs should have built into them a flexibility that anticipates diversity in
those needs and perspectives having a significant impact on the effectiveness of the program.
Types of diversity, such as culture and gender, were intentionally not mentioned. Any list would
be arbitrary and inadequate.
9. This Principle stems from the assumptions of interdependence among people, and between people
and their physical environment. It is like the ethical principle from medicine, “do no harm,”
but it is worded in a positive way.
10. This statement begs the question of which information needs to be protected and what the criteria
are for making the information public. The aims of this statement are modest: to state
explicitly the responsibility inherent to the “possession” of information. It is the complement to
Ethical Principles 6 and 7, about acting on and sharing information.
11. The criteria for professional competence would have to be specified by individual professions,
such as epidemiology and health education.
12. This statement underscores the collaborative nature of public health while also stating in a positive
way the need to avoid any conflicts of interest that would undermine the trust of the public
or the effectiveness of a program.
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health, Version 2.2
© 2002 Public Health Leadership Society 8
Correspondence of the 12 Ethical Principles
with the 10 Essential Public Health Services
2 Developed by the Essential Public Health Services Work Group of the Public Health Functions Steering Committee, 1994.
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health, Version 2.2
© 2002 Public Health Leadership Society 9
Essential Public Health Services 2 Ethical Principle
1. Monitor the health status to identify
community health problems
(5) collect information
(7) act on information
2. Diagnose and investigate health problems
and health hazards in the community
(5) collect information
3. Inform, educate, and empower people
about health issues
(4) advocacy and empowerment
(6) provide information
4. Mobilize community partnerships to
identify and solve health problems
(12) collaboration
5. Develop policies and plans that support
individual and community health efforts
(1) protect and promote health; address
fundamental causes of health risks
(3) processes for community input
(5) collect information
6. Enforce laws and regulations that protect
health and ensure safety
(2) achieve community health with respect for
individual rights
(3) feedback from the community
(7) act upon information
7. Link people to needed personal health
services and assure the provision of health
care when otherwise unavailable
(4) advocate for and empower; basic resources
available to all
(8) incorporate diversity
8. Assure a competent public health and
personal health care workforce
(11) professional competence
9. Evaluate effectiveness, accessibility, and
quality of personal and population-based
health services
(3) community feedback
(5) collect information
10. Research for new insights and innovative
solutions to health problems
(5) collect information
No corresponding essential public health
service
(9) enhance physical and social environments
(10) protect confidentiality
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health, Version 2.2
© 2002 Public Health Leadership Society
Contact for Further Information and Feedback
Visit www.phls.org for:
• Ways to provide feedback to inform ongoing development of the
12 Ethical Principles
• Information on aligning your organization’s public health practice with the
12 Ethical Principles
• Permission to reprint the 12 Ethical Principles and supporting documentation
• Requests for further information about public health ethics or the Public Health
Leadership Society
• Public Health Leadership Society contact information
10
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health, Version 2.2
© 2002 Public Health Leadership Society
Acknowledgements
The development and dissemination of the Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health is
funded by a cooperative agreement between the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the
Public Health Leadership Society (PHLS). The Center for Health Leadership & Practice, Public
Health Institute is acknowledged for its role in the initial development of the Principles. PHLS also
acknowledges the work of the members of the original PHLS Ethics Work Group (responsible for
drafting the Code) and the current members of the PHLS standing Committee on Public Health
Ethics. Specifically, PHLS acknowledges the following contributors: Elizabeth Bancroft (Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, Los Angeles County), Terry Brandenburg (West Allis Health
Department), Kitty Hsu Dana (American Public Health Association), Jack Dillenberg (Arizona
School of Health Sciences), Joxel Garcia (Connecticut Department of Health), Kathleen
Gensheimer (Maine Department of Health), V. James Guillory (University of Health Sciences,
Kansas City, MO), George Hardy (Association of State and Territorial Health Officers), Joseph
Kimbrell (Louisiana Public Health Institute and National Network of Public Heath Institutes),
Teresa Long (Columbus , OH, Department of Health), Alan Melnick (Oregon Health and Science
University, School of Medicine), Susan Myers (University of Pittsburgh), Ann Peterson (Virginia
Department of Health), Michael Sage (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention), Margaret
Schmelzer (Wisconsin Department of Health and Family Services), Liz Schwarte (Center for Health
Leadership & Practice, Public Health Institute), James Thomas (University of North Carolina),
Kathy Vincent (Alabama Health Department), and Carol Woltring (Center for Health Leadership
and Practice, Public Health Institute).
11
© 2002
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health
Public Health
Leadership Society
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health
Version 2.2
Table of Contents
Component Page
Preamble 1
Values and Beliefs Underlying the Code 2
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health 4
Supplemental Materials:
Rationale for a Public Health Code of Ethics 5
Notes on the Individual Ethical Principles 7
Correspondence of the 12 Ethical Principles 9
with the 10 Essential Public Health Services
Contact for Further Information and Feedback 10
Acknowlegements 11
©2002 Public Health Leadership Society
Table of Contents
Preamble
This code of ethics states key principles of the ethical practice of public health. An
accompanying statement lists the key values and beliefs inherent to a public health perspective
upon which the Ethical Principles are based. Public health is understood within these
principles as what we, as a society, do collectively to assure the conditions for people to be
healthy. We affirm the World Health Organization’s understanding of health as a state of
complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease
or infirmity.1
The Code is neither a new nor an exhaustive system of health ethics. Rather, it
highlights the ethical principles that follow from the distinctive characteristics of public
health. A key belief worth highlighting, and which underlies several of the Ethical
Principles, is the interdependence of people. This interdependence is the essence of
community. Public health not only seeks to assure the health of whole communities
but also recognizes that the health of individuals is tied to their life in the community.
The Code is intended principally for public and other institutions in the United
States that have an explicit public health mission. Institutions and individuals that are outside
of traditional public health, but recognize the effects of their work on the health of the
community, may also find the Code relevant and useful.
1 From The Future of Public Health, Institute of Medicine, 1988.
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health, Version 2.2
© 2002 Public Health Leadership Society 1
Values and Beliefs Underlying the Code
The following values and beliefs are key assumptions inherent to a public health perspective. They
underlie the 12 Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health.
Health
1. Humans have a right to the resources necessary for health. The Public Health Code of Ethics
affirms Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which states in part
“Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of
himself and his family…”
Community
2. Humans are inherently social and interdependent. Humans look to each other for companionship
in friendships, families, and community; and rely upon one another for safety and survival.
Positive relationships among individuals and positive collaborations among institutions are
signs of a healthy community. The rightful concern for the physical individuality of humans
and one’s right to make decisions for oneself must be balanced against the fact that each person’s
actions affect other people.
3. The effectiveness of institutions depends heavily on the public’s trust. Factors that contribute to
trust in an institution include the following actions on the part of the institution: communication;
truth telling; transparency (i.e., not concealing information); accountability; reliability;
and reciprocity. One critical form of reciprocity and communication is listening to as well as
speaking with the community.
4. Collaboration is a key element to public health. The public health infrastructure of a society is
composed of a wide variety of agencies and professional disciplines. To be effective, they
must work together well. Moreover, new collaborations will be needed to rise to new public
health challenges.
5. People and their physical environment are interdependent. People depend upon the resources of
their natural and constructed environments for life itself. A damaged or unbalanced natural
environment, and a constructed environment of poor design or in poor condition, will have an
adverse effect on the health of people. Conversely, people can have a profound effect on their
natural environment through consumption of resources and generation of waste.
6. Each person in a community should have an opportunity to contribute to public discourse.
Contributions to discourse may occur through a direct or a representative system of government.
In the process of developing and evaluating policy, it is important to discern whether all who
would like to contribute to the discussion have an opportunity to do so, even though expressing
a concern does not mean that it will necessarily be addressed in the final policy.
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health, Version 2.2
© 2002 Public Health Leadership Society 2
7. Identifying and promoting the fundamental requirements for health in a community are of primary
concern to public health. The way in which a society is structured is reflected in the health of a
community. The primary concern of public health is with these underlying structural aspects.
While some important public health programs are curative in nature, the field as a whole must
never lose sight of underlying causes and prevention. Because fundamental social structures
affect many aspects of health, addressing the fundamental causes rather than more proximal
causes is more truly preventive.
Bases for Action
8. Knowledge is important and powerful. We are to seek to improve our understanding of health
and the means of protecting it through research and the accumulation of knowledge. Once
obtained, there is a moral obligation in some instances to share what is known. For example,
active and informed participation in policy-making processes requires access to relevant information.
In other instances, such as information provided in confidence, there is an obligation
to protect information.
9. Science is the basis for much of our public health knowledge. The scientific method provides a relatively
objective means of identifying the factors necessary for health in a population, and for
evaluating policies and programs to protect and promote health. The full range of scientific
tools, including both quantitative and qualitative methods, and collaboration among the sciences
is needed.
10. People are responsible to act on the basis of what they know. Knowledge is not morally neutral and
often demands action. Moreover, information is not to be gathered for idle interest. Public
health should seek to translate available information into timely action. Often, the action
required is research to fill in the gaps of what we don’t know.
11. Action is not based on information alone. In many instances, action is required in the absence of
all the information one would like. In other instances, policies are demanded by the fundamental
value and dignity of each human being, even if implementing them is not calculated to be
optimally efficient or cost-beneficial. In both of these situations, values inform the application
of information or the action in the absence of information.
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health, Version 2.2
© 2002 Public Health Leadership Society
Values and Beliefs Underlying the Code
3
Principles of the Ethical
Practice of Public Health
1. Public health should address principally the fundamental causes of disease and requirements for
health, aiming to prevent adverse health outcomes.
2. Public health should achieve community health in a way that respects the rights of individuals in
the community.
3. Public health policies, programs, and priorities should be developed and evaluated through
processes that ensure an opportunity for input from community members.
4. Public health should advocate and work for the empowerment of disenfranchised community members,
aiming to ensure that the basic resources and conditions necessary for health are accessible to all.
5. Public health should seek the information needed to implement effective policies and programs
that protect and promote health.
6. Public health institutions should provide communities with the information they have that is
needed for decisions on policies or programs and should obtain the community’s consent for
their implementation.
7. Public health institutions should act in a timely manner on the information they have within the
resources and the mandate given to them by the public.
8. Public health programs and policies should incorporate a variety of approaches that anticipate
and respect diverse values, beliefs, and cultures in the community.
9. Public health programs and policies should be implemented in a manner that most enhances the
physical and social environment.
10. Public health institutions should protect the confidentiality of information that can bring harm
to an individual or community if made public. Exceptions must be justified on the basis of the
high likelihood of significant harm to the individual or others.
11. Public health institutions should ensure the professional competence of their employees.
12. Public health institutions and their employees should engage in collaborations and affiliations in
ways that build the public’s trust and the institution’s effectiveness.
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health, Version 2.2
© 2002 Public Health Leadership Society 4
The mandate to assure and protect the health of the public is an inherently moral one. It carries
with it an obligation to care for the well being of others and it implies the possession of an element
of power in order to carry out the mandate. The need to exercise power to ensure health and at the
same time to avoid the potential abuses of power are at the crux of public health ethics.
Until recently, the ethical nature of public health has been implicitly assumed rather than explicitly
stated. Increasingly, however, society is demanding explicit attention to ethics. This demand arises
from: technological advances that create new possibilities, and with them, new ethical dilemmas;
new challenges to health such as the advent of human immunodeficiency virus; abuses of power,
such as the Tuskegee study of syphilis; and an increasingly pluralistic society in which we can no
longer simply adopt the values from a single culture or religion, but we must work out our common
values in the midst of diversity.
Historically, medical institutions have been more explicit about the ethical elements of their practice
than have public health institutions. The concerns of public health are not fully consonant with
those of medicine, however, thus we cannot simply translate the principles of medical ethics to public
health. For example, in contrast to medicine, public health is concerned more with populations
than with individuals, and more with prevention than with cure. Thus, the purview of public health
includes those who are not presently ill, and for whom the risks and benefits of medical care are not
immediately relevant.
What does a code of ethics accomplish?
A code of ethics for public health clarifies the distinctive elements of public health and the ethical
principles that follow from or respond to those distinct aspects. It makes clear to populations and
communities the ideals of the public health institutions that serve them. A code of ethics thus serves
as a goal to guide public health institutions and practitioners and as a standard to which they can be
held accountable.
Codes of ethics are typically relatively brief; they are not designed to provide a means of untangling
convoluted ethical issues. That process requires deliberation and debate over the multitude of factors
relevant to a particular issue. Nor does a code typically provide a means of resolving a particular dispute.
It does, however, provide those in a dispute over a public health concern with a list of issues
and principles that should be considered in the dispute.
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health, Version 2.2
© 2002 Public Health Leadership Society
Rationale for a Public Health Code of Ethics
5
A living document
Many public health professionals, most of them associated with the Public Health Leadership
Society (PHLS), came together to initiate the process of writing the Code. Represented on the
PHLS Public Health Code of Ethics Committee are public health professionals from local and state
public health, public health academia, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and
the American Public Health Association (APHA). They were formally encouraged in this effort during
a town hall meeting attended by representatives from a wide variety of public health organizations
at the 2000 APHA annual meeting. A draft code was reviewed and critiqued in May 2001 by
25 public health professionals and ethicists in a CDC-funded meeting held in Kansas City. A
revised version of the Code was presented for discussion at another town hall meeting at the 2001
APHA annual meeting. Prior to the meeting, the Code was published on the APHA Website and an
e-mail address was provided for reactions and feedback. The present code reflects the input and discussion
from all of these forums. It is now being presented to various organizations for adoption or
endorsement. Even so, there are ongoing opportunities to provide feedback (see page 10 for details),
and an updating of the Code is anticipated. Tools for teaching about the Code and ensuring its
practical utility are currently in the making.
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health, Version 2.2
© 2002 Public Health Leadership Society
Rationale for a Public Health Code of Ethics
6
Notes on the Individual Ethical Principles
1. This Principle gives priority not only to prevention of disease or promotion of health, but also
at the most fundamental levels. Yet the principle acknowledges that public health will also concern
itself with some immediate causes and some curative roles. For example, the treatment of
curable infections is important to the prevention of transmission of infection to others. The
term “public health” is used here and elsewhere in the Code to represent the entire field of public
health, including but not limited to government institutions and schools of public health.
2. This Principle identifies the common need in public health to weigh the concerns of both the
individual and the community. There is no ethical principle that can provide a solution to this
perennial tension in public health. We can highlight, however, that the interest of the community
is part of the equation, and for public health it is the starting place in the equation; it is the
primary interest of public health. Still, there remains the need to pay attention to the rights of
individuals when exercising the police powers of public health.
3. A process for input can be direct or representative. In either case, it involves processes that work
to establish a consensus. While democratic processes can be cumbersome, once a policy is established,
public health institutions have the mandate to respond quickly to urgent situations.
Input from the community should not end once a policy or program is implemented. There
remains a need for the community to evaluate whether the institution is implementing the program
as planned and whether it is having the intended effect. The ability for the public to provide
this input and sense that it is being heard is critical in the development and maintenance of
public trust in the institution.
4. This Principle speaks to two issues: ensuring that all in a community have a voice; and
underscoring that public health has a particular interest in those members of a community
that are underserved or marginalized. While a society cannot provide resources for health at
a level enjoyed by the wealthy, it can ensure a decent minimum standard of resources. The
Code cannot prescribe action when it comes to ensuring the health of those who are marginalized
because of illegal behaviors. It can only underscore the principle of ensuring the
resources necessary for health to all. Each institution must decide for itself what risks it will
take to achieve that.
5. This Principle is a mandate to seek information to inform actions. The importance of information
to evaluate programs is also implied.
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health, Version 2.2
© 2002 Public Health Leadership Society 7
Notes on the Individual Ethical Principles
6. This Principle is linked to the third one about democratic processes. Such processes depend
upon an informed community. The information obtained by public health institutions is to be
considered public property and made available to the public. This statement is also the community-
level corollary of the individual-level ethical principle of informed consent. Particularly
when a program has not been duly developed with evaluation, the community should be
informed of the potential risks and benefits, and implementation of the program should be
premised on the consent of the community (though this principle does not specify how that
consent should be obtained).
7. Public health is active rather than passive, and information is not to be gathered for idle interest.
Yet the ability to act is conditioned by available resources and opportunities, and by competing
needs. Moreover, the ability to respond to urgent situations depends on having established a
mandate to do so through the democratic processes of Ethical Principle number three.
8. Public health programs should have built into them a flexibility that anticipates diversity in
those needs and perspectives having a significant impact on the effectiveness of the program.
Types of diversity, such as culture and gender, were intentionally not mentioned. Any list would
be arbitrary and inadequate.
9. This Principle stems from the assumptions of interdependence among people, and between people
and their physical environment. It is like the ethical principle from medicine, “do no harm,”
but it is worded in a positive way.
10. This statement begs the question of which information needs to be protected and what the criteria
are for making the information public. The aims of this statement are modest: to state
explicitly the responsibility inherent to the “possession” of information. It is the complement to
Ethical Principles 6 and 7, about acting on and sharing information.
11. The criteria for professional competence would have to be specified by individual professions,
such as epidemiology and health education.
12. This statement underscores the collaborative nature of public health while also stating in a positive
way the need to avoid any conflicts of interest that would undermine the trust of the public
or the effectiveness of a program.
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health, Version 2.2
© 2002 Public Health Leadership Society 8
Correspondence of the 12 Ethical Principles
with the 10 Essential Public Health Services
2 Developed by the Essential Public Health Services Work Group of the Public Health Functions Steering Committee, 1994.
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health, Version 2.2
© 2002 Public Health Leadership Society 9
Essential Public Health Services 2 Ethical Principle
1. Monitor the health status to identify
community health problems
(5) collect information
(7) act on information
2. Diagnose and investigate health problems
and health hazards in the community
(5) collect information
3. Inform, educate, and empower people
about health issues
(4) advocacy and empowerment
(6) provide information
4. Mobilize community partnerships to
identify and solve health problems
(12) collaboration
5. Develop policies and plans that support
individual and community health efforts
(1) protect and promote health; address
fundamental causes of health risks
(3) processes for community input
(5) collect information
6. Enforce laws and regulations that protect
health and ensure safety
(2) achieve community health with respect for
individual rights
(3) feedback from the community
(7) act upon information
7. Link people to needed personal health
services and assure the provision of health
care when otherwise unavailable
(4) advocate for and empower; basic resources
available to all
(8) incorporate diversity
8. Assure a competent public health and
personal health care workforce
(11) professional competence
9. Evaluate effectiveness, accessibility, and
quality of personal and population-based
health services
(3) community feedback
(5) collect information
10. Research for new insights and innovative
solutions to health problems
(5) collect information
No corresponding essential public health
service
(9) enhance physical and social environments
(10) protect confidentiality
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health, Version 2.2
© 2002 Public Health Leadership Society
Contact for Further Information and Feedback
Visit www.phls.org for:
• Ways to provide feedback to inform ongoing development of the
12 Ethical Principles
• Information on aligning your organization’s public health practice with the
12 Ethical Principles
• Permission to reprint the 12 Ethical Principles and supporting documentation
• Requests for further information about public health ethics or the Public Health
Leadership Society
• Public Health Leadership Society contact information
10
Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health, Version 2.2
© 2002 Public Health Leadership Society
Acknowledgements
The development and dissemination of the Principles of the Ethical Practice of Public Health is
funded by a cooperative agreement between the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the
Public Health Leadership Society (PHLS). The Center for Health Leadership & Practice, Public
Health Institute is acknowledged for its role in the initial development of the Principles. PHLS also
acknowledges the work of the members of the original PHLS Ethics Work Group (responsible for
drafting the Code) and the current members of the PHLS standing Committee on Public Health
Ethics. Specifically, PHLS acknowledges the following contributors: Elizabeth Bancroft (Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, Los Angeles County), Terry Brandenburg (West Allis Health
Department), Kitty Hsu Dana (American Public Health Association), Jack Dillenberg (Arizona
School of Health Sciences), Joxel Garcia (Connecticut Department of Health), Kathleen
Gensheimer (Maine Department of Health), V. James Guillory (University of Health Sciences,
Kansas City, MO), George Hardy (Association of State and Territorial Health Officers), Joseph
Kimbrell (Louisiana Public Health Institute and National Network of Public Heath Institutes),
Teresa Long (Columbus , OH, Department of Health), Alan Melnick (Oregon Health and Science
University, School of Medicine), Susan Myers (University of Pittsburgh), Ann Peterson (Virginia
Department of Health), Michael Sage (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention), Margaret
Schmelzer (Wisconsin Department of Health and Family Services), Liz Schwarte (Center for Health
Leadership & Practice, Public Health Institute), James Thomas (University of North Carolina),
Kathy Vincent (Alabama Health Department), and Carol Woltring (Center for Health Leadership
and Practice, Public Health Institute).
11
Kamis, 11 April 2013
SOAL UJIAN NILAI DAN ETIKA LINGKUNGAN
KUSWANTO
12131011145
Email : engkoes73wanto@yahoo.co.id
JAWAB
SOAL-SOAL BERIKUT DI BLOG MASING-MASING.
1. Jelaskan apa yang dimaksud dengan
ekosistem? rincikan ekosistem apa saja yang ada di bumi dan di sekitar anda...
lengkapi dengan gambar.
2. Apa yang dimaksud dengan nilai
lingkungan? lengkapi dengan bagaimana mengkuantifikasi nilai lingkungan,
3. Jelaskan jenis-jenis etika
lingkungan yang anda ketahui. Jelaskan bagaimana strategi penerapan etika
lingkungan itu
4. Jelaskan mengapa menggunakan
blogspot ini merupakan bukti komitmen bahwa kita mendukung perwujudan kebijakan
pemerintah dalam e-government di satu sisi dan mengeksperisikan etika kita
terhadap lingkungan. Lengkapi dengan argumen ilmiahnya.
5. Mengapa jejak ekologis itu merupakan
gambaran apakah seseorang itu menyumbang terhadap kerusakan lingkungan atau
tidak ?
6. Sudahkah anda membuat dan mengelola
dengan baik ? Nilai anda juga sangat ditentukan dengan pengelolaan blogspot
anda
Jawaban
:
1.
Ekosistem adalah
suatu sistem ekologi yang terbentuk oleh hubungan timbal balik tak terpisahkan
antara mahluk hidup dengan lingkungannya. Ekosistem bisa dikatakan juga suatu
tatanan kesatuan secara utuh dan menyeluruh antara segenap unsur lingkungan
hidup yang saling mempengaruhi.
Secara garis besar ekosistem
dibedakan menjadi 2, yaitu ekosistem darat (terestrial) dan ekosistem
perairan (akuatik).
I.
Ekosistem Darat
Terdiri atas beberapa macam bioma
antara lain :
A. Bioma
Gurun
Gurun merupakan daerah kering yang
curah hujannya hanya 20 cm per tahun. Vegetasi dominan pembentuk bioma gurun
adalah kaktus. Adapun hewan yang hidup di bioma ini umumnya aktif pada
malam hari atau nokturnal. Hal tersebut merupakan adaptasi terhadap suhu
lingkungan yang sangat panas dan untuk mengurangi kehilangan cairan tubuh.
B. Padang
Rumput
Bioma ini memiliki karakteristik
beriklim sedang, dengan curah hujan berkisar antara 25–75 per tahun dan
vegetasi dominannya adalah rumput. Adapun hewan yang hidup di bioma ini
adalah kelinci, serigala, dan kuda.
C. Hutan
Hujan Turun
Bioma hutan hujan tropis terdapat di
kawasan garis khatulistiwa di seluruh dunia, seperti Asia tengah termasuk
Indonesia, Amerika tengah dan selatan, Afrika, serta Australia. Hutan hujan
tropis memiliki temperatur dengan kisaran 25°C per tahun dan curah hujan yang
tinggi sekitar 200 cm per tahun.
Tumbuhan dan hewan yang hidup di
bioma ini paling beragam (memiliki keanekaragaman paling tinggi) dibandingkan
dengan tumbuhan dan hewan yang hidup di bioma-bioma lainnya. Tumbuhan yang khas
yang hidup di bioma ini adalah tumbuhan liana (tumbuhan merambat)
seperti rotan dan tumbuhan epifit seperti anggrek. Hewan yang khas di
bioma ini adalah harimau, badak, babi hutan, dan orangutan.
D.
Hutan Gugur
Bioma hutan gugur terdapat di daerah beriklim sedang dan
tersebar di Amerika Timur, Eropa Tengah, dan Asia Timur. Bioma ini memiliki
ciri-ciri suhu yang sangat rendah pada musim dingin dan sangat panas pada musim
panas (-30°C hingga 30°C). Curah hujan tinggi dan merata, serta jenis pohon
yang dapat menggugurkan daunnya pada saat musim panas (pada hutan gugur daerah
tropis) dan pada saat musim dingin (pada hutan gugur iklim sedang). Hewan yang
hidup di bioma ini antara lain tikus, beruang, bajing dan burung. Beberapa
hewan pada bioma ini dapat melakukan hibernasi, yaitu tidur panjang selama
musim dingin dengan terlebih dahulu mengkonsumsi banyak makanan.
E. Taiga
Bioma taiga dikenal sebagai hutan konifer,
merupakan bioma terluas di bumi. Bioma ini memiliki curah hujan 35 cm sampai
dengan 40 cm per tahun. Daerah ini sangat basah karena penguapan yang rendah.
Tanah di bioma taiga bersifat asam. Bioma taiga terdapat di daerah yang
beriklim sedang, dengan curah hujan sekitar 100 cm per tahun. Terdapat di
Amerika bagian utara dan selatan, Eropa bagian barat, dan Asia bagian timur.
Tumbuhan yang hidup di bioma taiga umumnya konifer dan pinus. Hewan yang
hidup di bioma ini di antaranya adalah rusa, beruang hitam, salamander, dan
tupai.
F. Tundra
Bioma tundra terdapat di bumi bagian
utara, yaitu di kutub utara yang memiliki curah hujan yang rendah. Oleh karena
itu, hutan tidak dapat berkembang di daerah ini. Pada musim dingin, air dalam
tanah dingin dan membeku sehingga tumbuhan tidak dapat tumbuh besar. Produsen
utama di bioma ini adalah lichenes dan lumut. Binatang yang dapat
ditemui di bioma ini, antara lain beruang kutub, reindeer (rusa kutub),
serigala, dan burung-burung yang bermigrasi ketika musim-musim tertentu.
G. Savana
Savana merupakan padang rumput yang
didominasi oleh rumput dengan semak serta pohon yang terpencar. Savana memiliki
curah hujan sekitar 90–150 cm per tahun. Hewan yang hidup di dalamnya, antara
lain gajah, kuda, dan zarafah.
II.
Ekosistem Perairan
Meliputi ekosistem air tawar dan
ekosistem air laut.
Pada ekosistem air tawar memiliki
ciri antara lain: variasi suhu rendah dan dipengaruhi keadaan iklim dan cuaca.
Berdasarkan intensitas cahaya matahari yang diterima, habitat air tawar
dibedakan menjadi 3 daerah, yaitu :
Ø Litoral,
yaitu daerah dangkal sehingga memungkinkan cahaya matahari dapat mencapai dasar
perairan.
Ø
Limnetik,
yaitu daerah terbuka sampai kedalaman tertentu masih dapat ditembus cahaya.
Ø Profundal, yaitu daerah dasar
perairan sehingga cahaya tidak mampu mencapai dasar perairan.
Berdasarkan keadaan airnya (aliran
airnya), habitat air tawar dibedakan menjadi 2, yaitu :
Ø Lotik, yaitu ekosistem air tawar
yang keadaan airnya mengalir. Contoh : sungai, mata air, dan sebagainya .
Ø Lentik, yaitu ekosistem air yang
keadaan airnya tenang. Contoh : kolam, waduk, dan sebagainya.
Pada ekosistem air laut memiliki
ciri antara lain salinitasnya tinggi, tidak dipengaruhi variasi suhu dan iklim.
Berdasarkan intensitas cahaya
matahari, habitat laut dibedakan :
Ø Daerah fotik (eutrofik), yaitu
daerah yang masih ditembus cahaya.
Ø Daerah disfotik, yaitu daerah
yang sedikit cahaya (remang –remang)
Ø Daerah afotik, yaitu daerah yang
tidak mendapat cahaya matahari.
Berdasarkan fisiknya (secara
vertikal), daerah laut dibedakan :
Ø Daerah litoral, yaitu daerah yang
dipengaruhi pasang surut (0 – 200 meter).
Ø Daerah batial, yaitu daerah yang
kedalamannya antara 200 – 2000 meter.
Ø Daerah abisal, yaitu daerah yang
kedalamannya antara 2000 – 4000 meter.
Ø Daerah hadal, yaitu daerah yang
kedalamannya lebih dari 4000 meter.
Di Indonesia dikelompokkan 4
ekosistem utama, yaitu
a. Ekosistem Bahari (laut), ekosistem
ini meliputi :
Ø Ekosistem laut dalam, ekosistem
memiliki keanekaragaman jenis yang rendah, dan tidak terdapat organisme
autotrof. Kelompok hewan yang ada berupa benthos.
Ø Ekosistem Pantai Pasir Dangkal (litoral),daerah ini memiliki beberpa bentuk ekosistem, yaitu :
- Ekosistem
Terumbu Karang, terumbu Karang terbentuk karena kegiatan organisme
laut seperti Coelenterata, Cacing, Kerang, dan Karang berkapur. Pada
daerah ini perairannya jernih dan berpasir.
- Ekosistem Pantai Batu,Pantai Batu dapat berupa batu caday yang berasal dari proses konglomerasi, yaitu persatuan antara batu – batu kecil, tanah liat, kapur, dan bongkahan batu granit. Vegetasi yang mendominasi adalah jenis alga tertentu, seperti Euchema dan Sargasum.
- Ekosistem
Pantai Lumpur, Pantai lumpur terdapat di daerah muara sungai dan
sekitarnya yang membentuk delta, yaitu endapan lumpur yang membentang
luas. Vegetasi yang mendominasi antara lain Avicenia (Api – api), Sonneratia
(Bakau), Enhalus acoroide (rumput laut). Jenis hewannya berupa
ikan kecil (ikan gelodok).
b. Ekosistem Darat Alami
Ekosistem
ini memiliki 3 bentuk vegetasi, yaitu vegetasi Monsun, vegetasi Pegunungan, dan
vegetasi Pamah (Dataran Rendah).
Ø Vegetasi monsun berada di daerah
beriklim kering musiman dengan kelembapan udara lebih dari 33% dan curah hujan
sekitar 1500 mm/th. Jenis vegetasinya meliputi padang rumput, savana, hutan
monsun.
Ø Vegetasi pegunungan terletak di
ketinggian lebih dari 1000 m di atas permukaan laut (dpl) dengan vegetasi yang
beraeneka ragam seperti hutan pegunungan, padang rumput, vegetasi lereng
terbuka berbatu, vegetasi alpin dan danau.
Ø Vegetasi Pamah ini memiliki kawasan yang sangat luas, yaitu antara ketinggian 0 – 1000 meter di atas permukaan laut.
Vegetasi ini meliputi : Hutan Bakau (hutan di tepi pantai), Hutan
Rawa Air Tawar (hutan yang terletak di belakang hutan bakau), Hutan Tepi Sungai
(hutan yang terdapat di sepanjang tepi sungai). Ciri Hutan Tepi Sungai :
tanahnya subur, lapisannya dalam, dan gembur. Floranya merupakan vegetasi
musiman dan tumbuhan reofit (tumbuhan yang memiliki perakaran yang kuat).
Ø Hutan Sagu
Ø Hutan Rawa Gambut
Hutan ini memiliki ciri antara lain jenis floranya terbatas, pH tanah asam (kurang dari 4) kandungan haranya rendah, pohonnya tinggi, kurus, dan tidak lebat, permukaan tanah cembung dengan genangan air.
c. Ekosistem Suksesi
Yaitu ekosistem yang mengalami
perubahan menuju kearah yang klimaks. Ekosistem ini dibedakan menjadi ekosistem
suksesi primer dan ekosistem suksesi skunder.
d. Ekosistem Buatan
Yaitu ekosistem yang terbentuk karen
aktivitas atau usaha manusia dalam pengelolaan ataupun untuk mengadakan
perubahan terhadap lahan.
Hutan buatan dikelompokkan dalam 3 kelompok besar, yaitu :
Ø Danau, ekosistem ini biasanya
dimanfaatkan untuk kepentingan manusia, misalnya untuk PLTA, irigasi, dan
sebagainya.
Ø Hutan Tanaman, hutan ini biasanya
dimanfaatkan untuk kepentingan manusia, misalnya untuk industri (HTI),
bangunan, dan sebagainya. Ciri dari jenis pohon yang ditanam adalah jenis
tanaman yang keras dan tanaman tahunan. Contoh : Pinus, Meranti, Puspa, Rasamala,
Damar, dan sebagainya.
Ø Agroekosistem, agroekosistem
merupakan ekosistem yang dimanfaatkan untuk kepentingan manusia seperti
pertanian, perkebunan, peternakan, perikanan, dan sebagainya. Di dalam
agroekosistem memiliki keanekaragaman yang tinggi dengan memperhatikan faktor
iklim, tanah, topografi, dan budaya. Contoh agroekosistem adalah sawah tadah
hujan, sawah irigasi, sawah surjan, sawah rawa, sawah pasang surut, kolam,
tambak, pekarangan, ladang, dan perkebunan.
2. Nilai
Lingkungan
Nilai sendiri
memiliki banyak arti bagi beberapa tokoh. Diantaranya adalah sebagaimana uraian
berikut ini:
Menurut Ralp
Perry: “Value as any object of any interest”. Maknanya
adalah bahwa nilai sebagai suatu objek dari suatu minat individu.
John Dewey menyatakan: “…..value
is any object of social interest”. Maknanya adalah bahwa sesuatu bernilai apabila disukai dan dibenarkan oleh
sekelompok manusia (sosial). Dalam hal ini Dewey mengutamakan kesepakatan
sosial (masyarakat, antar manusia, termasuk negara).
Kupperman mendefinisikan
nilai adalah patokan normatif yang memperngaruhi manusia dalam menentukan pilihannya di antara cara-cara
tindakan alternatif.
Gordon Allport mendefinisikan
nilai adalah keyakinan yang membuat seseorang bertindak atas dasar pilihannya.
Mulyana
mengatakan bahwa nilai adalah rujukan dan keyakinan dalam menentukan pilihan.
Menurut Purwodarminto, nilai dapat diartikan dalam 5 hal. Lima hal itu
adalah: harga dalam taksiran, harga sesuatu, angka kepandaian, kadar/mutu dan sifat-sifat yang penting.
Dari penjelasan
di atas dapat disimpulkan bahwa nilai adalah sesuatu yang penting, baik dan
berharga. Dalam nilai terkandung sesuatu yang ideal, harapan yang
dicita-citakan untuk kebajikan. Menilai berarti menimbang, suatu kegiatan
menghubungkan sesuatu dengan yang lain dan kemudian mengambil keputusan.
Sesuatu dianggap punya nilai jika sesuatu itu dianggap penting, baik dan
berharga bagi kehidupan umat manusia. Baik ditinjau dari segi religius,
politik, hukum, moral, etika, estetika, ekonomi, lingkungan dan sosial budaya.
Adapun lingkungan adalah istilah
yang dapat mencakup segala makhluk hidup dan tak hidup di alam, yang berfungsi
secara alami tanpa campur tangan manusia yang berlebihan atau kesatuan makhluk
hidup termasuk di dalamnya ada manusia dan segala tingkah lakunya demi
melangsungkan perikehidupan dan kesejahteraan manusia maupun mahkluk hidup
lainnya yang ada di sekitarnya.
Nilai lingkungan artinya ada
kandungan yang terdapat dalam lingkungan. Lingkungan yang mempunyai nilai
positif, berharga dan dipentingkan dengan sebaik-baiknya, dimana artinya yang
berkarakter dan mendukung terciptanya perwujudan nilai-nilai lingkungan dalam
menunjang kehidupan, sepeti karakter cinta pada Sang Maha Pencipta dan segenap
ciptaan-Nya. Begitupun sebaliknya. Jadi nilai lingkungan yang berharga tersebut
sangatlah penting bagi perkembangan semua makhluk untuk bertahan hidup dan
untuk beribadah pada Sang Pencipta.
Artinya juga nilai lingkungan harus
mencakup kemandirian dan tanggung jawab, kejujuran dan amanah, diplomatis,
hormat dan santun, dermawan, suka tolong-menolong, gotong royong dan kerjasama
dalam menjaga dan melestarikan lingkungan.
Dan
selanjutnya, bagaimana cara mengkuantifikasi nilai lingkungan akan segera kita
bahas. Atau ada yang ingin menyumbangkan saran?
Pengertian
kuantifikasi adalah keterangan yang berhubungan dengan kuantitas atau jumlah.
Misalnya setiap, beberapa, semua.
Contoh
untuk lebih jelasnya:
Semua pohon mangga di belakang rumahku sedang berbuah lebat. Tak
ada satu pohon jambu didepan rumahku yang tak berbunga.
Jadi salah satu cara mengkuantifikasi nilai lingkungan adalah dengan meyakini bahwa semua cara kita memelihara nilai lingkungan akan berguna bagi kelangsungan hidup yang lebih baik dimasa mendatang.
Setiap
kebaikan yang kita lakukan untuk lingkungan akan sangat bermanfaat bagi
kelestarian lingkungan dimasa depan, sekecil apapun itu, misalnya dengan
membiasakan diri dan keluarga untuk membuang sampah pada tempatnya. Dan
syukurnya ini sudah aku lakukan sejak dini pada anak-anakku. Mereka bahkan akan
berseru geram bila ada seseorang yang melempar kantung makanan lewat kaca mobil
seenaknya.
3. Jenis
– jenis Etika Lingkungan
Manusia merupakan salah satu bagian
yang terintegrasi dengan lingkungan. Sebagai makhluk hidup yang membutuhkan
lingkungan, manusia memiliki kewajiban untuk menghormati, menghargai dan
menjaga nilai-nilai yang terkandung di dalam lingkungan. Perilaku positif
manusia dapat menyebabkan lingkungan tetap lestari sedangkan perilaku
negatifnya dapat menyebabkan kerusakan lingkungan.
Etika dapat dipandang sebagai
kebiasaan hidup yang baik yang diwariskan dari satu generasi ke generasi lain.
Etika berisikan aturan tentang bagaimana manusia harus hidup yang baik sebagai
manusia, perintah dan larangan tentang baik buruknya perilaku manusia untuk
mengungkapkan, menjaga, dan melestarikan nilai tertentu, yaitu apa yang
dianggap baik dan penting. Dengan demikian etika berisi prinsip-prinsip moral
yang harus dijadikan pegangan dalam menuntun perilaku.
Etika lingkungan hidup berbicara
mengenai perilaku manusia terhadap alam serta hubungan antara semua kehidupan
alam semesta. Etika lingkungan (etika ekologi) adalah pendekatan terhadap
lingkungan yang melihat pentingnya memahami lingkungan sebagai keseluruhan kehidupan
yang saling menopang, sehingga semua unsur mempunyai arti dan makna yang sama.
Prinsip etika ekologi adalah: semua bentuk kehidupan memiliki nilai bawaan
dan karena itu memiliki hak untuk menuntut penghargaan karena harga diri, hak
untuk hidup dan hak untuk berkembang.
Etika lingkungan dapat dibedakan
menjadi etika pelestarian dan etika pemeliharaan. Etika pelestarian
adalah etika yang menekankan pada mengusahakan pelestarian alam untuk
kepentingan manusia, sedangkan etika pemeliharaan dimaksudkan untuk mendukung
usaha pemeliharaan lingkungan untuk kepentingan semua mahluk. Etika ekologi
dapat dibedakan menjadi etika ekologi mendalam dan etika ekologi dangkal.
Etika Ekologi Dangkal
Etika ekologi dangkal merupakan
pendekatan terhadap lingkungan yang menekankan fungsi lingkungan sebagai sarana
penyelenggaraan kepentingan manusia dan bersifat antroposentris. Etika ekologi
dangkal biasa diterapkan pada filsafat rasionalisme dan humanisme serta ilmu
pengetahuan mekanistik. Dalam hal ini, alam hanya dipandang sebagai alat
pemenuhan kebutuhan hidup manusia.
Poin-poin
penekanan dalam etika antroposentris adalah sebagai berikut.
·
Manusia
terpisah dari alam.
·
Mengutamakan
hak-hak manusia atas alam tetapi tidak menekankan tanggung jawab manusia.
·
Mengutamakan
perasaan manusia sebagai pusat keprihatinannya.
·
Kebijakan
dan manajemen sunber daya alam untuk kepentingan manusia.
·
Norma
utama adalah untung rugi.
·
Mengutamakan
rencana jangka pendek.
·
Pemecahan
krisis ekologis melalui pengaturan jumlah penduduk khususnya di negara miskin.
·
Menerima
secara positif pertumbuhan ekonomi.
Jenis
etika antroposentris.
1. Etika antroposentris yang menekankan
segi estetika alam (etika
lingkungan harus dicari pada kepentingan manusia, secara khusus kepentingan
estetika).
2. Etika antroposentris yang
mengutamakan kepentingan generasi penerus (mendasarkan etika lingkungan pada perlindungan atau
konservasi alam yang ditujukan untuk generasi penerus manusia).
Tokoh:
Eugene Hargrove dan Mark Sagoff.
Etika
Ekologi Mendalam
Dalam hal ini, alam dipandang memiliki fungsi kehidupan,
patut dihargai dan diperlakukan dengan cara yang baik (etika lingkungan
ekstensionisme atau preservasi). Karena alam disadari sebagai penopang
kehidupan manusia dan seluruh ciptaan. Untuk itu manusia dipanggil untuk memelihara
alam demi kepentingan bersama, kepentingan manusia dan kepentingan alam itu
sendiri.
Berikut
adalah poin-poin yang ditekankan dalam etika ekologi.
·
Manusia
adalah bagian dari alam
·
Menekankan
hak hidup mahluk lain, walaupun dapat dimanfaatkan oleh manusia, tidak boleh
diperlakukan sewenang-wenang
·
Prihatin
akan perasaan semua mahluk dan sedih kalau alam diperlakukan sewenang-wenang
·
Kebijakan
manajemen lingkungan bagi semua mahluk
·
Alam
harus dilestarikan dan tidak dikuasai
·
Pentingnya
melindungi keanekaragaman hayati
·
Menghargai
dan memelihara tata alam
·
Mengutamakan
tujuan jangka panjang sesuai ekosistem
·
Mengkritik
sistem ekonomi dan politik dan menyodorkan sistem alternatif yaitu sistem
mengambil sambil memelihara.
Berikut
adalah jenis-jenis etika ekologi mendalam.
1. Etika Neo-Utilitarisme. Etika ini merupakan pengembangan
etika utilitarisme Jeremy Bentham yang dipelopori Pete Singer yang menekankan
kebaikan untuk semua sehingga kebaikan etika lingkungan ditujukan untuk seluruh
mahluk.
2. Etika Zoosentrisme. Etika ini menekankan perjuangan
hak-hak binatang (pembebasan binatang) dengan tokoh Charles Brich.
Menurut etika ini, binatang memiliki hak menikmati kesenangan karena mereka
dapat merasa senang dan harus dicegah dari penderitaan dan menjadikan rasa senang/penderitaan
binatang sebagai salah satu standar moral.
3. Etika Biosentrisme. Etika ini menekankan
kehidupan sebagai standar moral dengan salah satu tokohnya adalah Kenneth
Goodpaster. Hal yang dijadikan tujuan bukanlah rasa senang atau menderita
tetapi kemampuan atau kepentingan untuk hidup. Dengan menjadikan kepentingan
untuk hidup sebagai standar moral, maka yang dihargai secara moral bukan hanya
manusia dan hewan, melainkan seluruh makhluk hidup yang ada.
4. Etika Ekosentrisme. Etika ekosentrisme menekankan keterkaitan
seluruh organisme dan anorganisme dalam ekosistem. Setiap individu mamiliki
keterkaitan satu sama lain secara mutual dan memandang bumi sebagai suatu
pabrik terintegrasi berisi organsime yang saling membutuhkan, saling menopang
dan saling memerlukan. Kematian dan kehidupan haruslah diterima secara
seimbang. Hukum alam memungkinkan mahluk saling memangsa diantara semua
spesies. Ini menjadi alasan mengapa manusia boleh memakan unsur-unsur
yang ada di alam, seperti binatang maupun tumbuhan. Menurut salah satu
tokohnya, John B. Cobb, etika ekosentrisme mengusahakan keseimbangan antara
kepentingan individu dengan kepentingan keseluruhan dalam ekosistem.
Untuk
pelaksanaannya, berikut terdapat beberapa prinsip yang dapat menjadi pegangan
dan tuntunan bagi perilaku manusia dalam berhadapan dengan alam.
1. Sikap Hormat terhadap Alam (Respect
For Nature). Hormat
terhadap alam merupakan prinsip dasar bagi manusia sebagai bagian dari alam
semesta seluruhnya. Setiap anggota komunitas ekologis, termasuk manusia, berkewajiban
menghargai dan menghormati setiap kehidupan dan spesies serta menjaga
keterkaitan dan kesatuan komunitas ekologis.
2. Prinsip Tanggung Jawab (Moral
Responsibility For Nature). Manusia mempunyai tanggung jawab terhadap alam semesta (isi,
kesatuan, keberadaan dan kelestariannya).
3. Solidaritas Kosmis (Cosmic
Solidarity). Prinsip
solidaritas muncul dari kenyataan bahwa manusia adalah bagian yang menyatu dari
alam semesta dimana manusia sebagai makhluk hidup memiliki perasaan
sepenanggungan dengan alam dan dengan sesama makhluk hidup lain.
4. Prinsip Kasih Sayang dan Kepedulian
terhadap Alam (Caring For Nature). Manusia digugah untuk mencintai, menyayangi, dan
melestarikan alam semesta dan seluruh isinya, tanpa diskriminasi dan tanpa
dominasi yang muncul dari kenyataan bahwa sebagai sesama anggota komunitas
ekologis, semua makhluk hidup mempunyai hak untuk dilindungi, dipelihara, tidak
disakiti, dan dirawat.
Strategi Penerapan Etika Lingkungan
1. Membuat
aturan etika lingkungan dalam berbagai aktivitas lingkungan sekitar.
a. Konservasi
: menjaga/membatasi sumber daya alam
Maksudnya, manusia
harus menghilangkan pandangan bahwa bumi merupakan SDA yang tidak terbatas
sehingga manusia dapat menggunakan seenaknya.
b. Meyakini
bahawa manusia merupakan bagian dari alam yaitu dengan cara :
Ø Tidak
mengeksploitasi SDA secara berlebihan
Ø Tidak
merusak alam sekitar
Ø Memperbaiki
kerusakan SDA akibat eksploitasi berlebihan dan menyadari bahwa eksploitasi
mengakibatkan penurunan daya dukung lingkungan.
Ø Mendukung
dan menjamin bahawa lingkungan dapat meneruskan fungsinya untuk kelangsungan
hidupsemua mahluk dengan menghormati alam.
Ø Mengelola
sistem lingkungan dengan menggunakan ilmu dan teknologi yang
ramah lingkungan.
2. Peran
dan fungsi individu, pemerintah, dan organisasi dalam menerapkan etika lingkungan.
a. Pemerintah
Menurut UU No 23 tahun
1997, peran dan fungsi pemerintah dalam pengelolaan lingkungan hidup :
Ø Bertanggung
jawab saat mengambil keputusan dalam pengelolaan lingkungan
Ø hidup.
Ø Meningkatkan
haka dan tanggung jawab masyarakat dalam pengelolaan
Ø lingkungan
hidup.
Ø Mengembankan
kebijakan nasional pengelolaan lingkungan hidup.
Ø Menyebarluaskan
informasi lingkungan hidup kepada masyarakat.
Ø Memberi
penghargaan bagi orang yang berjasa dalam pengelolaan lingkungan
Ø hidup
dan memberi hukuman bagi yang merusaknya.
b. Organisasi
Ø Memberikan
pendidikan lingkungan hidup kepada masyarakat.
Ø Meneliti
masalah lingkungan hidup dan hasilnya disebarluaskan kepada
Ø masyarakat.
Ø Mengontrol
pemerintah dalam pelaksanaan UU pengelolaan lingkungan hidup
Ø Berperan
aktif sebagai mitra regulator dalam memberikan informasi mengenai
Ø lingkungan
hidup kepada masyarakat.
Ø Membantu
menyelesaikan masalah lingkungan hidup dalam masyarakat.
c. Individu
Ø Mematuhi
kebijakan pemerintah dalam pengelolaan lingkungan hidup.
Ø Tidah
mengeksploitasi alam secara berlebihan.
Ø Saling
mengingatkan apabila ada yang melakukan kegiatan yang merusak
Ø lingkungan.
Ø Menyayangi
binatang dan tumbuhan sehingga terhindar dari kepunahan.
3. Membiasakan
diri melaksanakan aturan etika lingkungan.
a. Lingkungan
keluarga.
Ø Menanam
dan memelihara tanaman dipekarangan rumah.
Ø Membiasakan
diri membuang sampah pada tempatnya.
Ø Memberikan
tanggung jawab pada tiap anggota keluarga untuk membersihkan
Ø rumah
secara rutin.
b. Lingkungan
sekolah.
Ø Pembahasan
atau mengenai lingkungan hidup.
Ø Pengelolaan
sampah.
Ø Penanaman
pohon.
c. Lingkungan
masyarakat.
Ø Membuang
samaph pada tempat pembuangan sampah akhir secara berkala.
Ø Memisahkan
sampah organik dan anorganik.
Ø Melakukan
gotong royong secara berkala.
Ø Mendaur
ulang sampah yang dapat diperbaharui.
4.
Dengan
menggunakan blog spot kita sebagai pengguna pelayanan public dapat menikmati
pelayanan blog spot yang lebih baik, lebih cepat dan mudah, tanpa dibatasi oleh
dimensi-dimensi ruang dan waktu.
Dengan e-government, kantor
pelayanan public buka selama 24 jam sehari, 7 hari seminggu dan 365 hari
setahun dan dapat diakses dari manapun. Pelayanan public di Indonesia dinilai
seperti itu sangatlah mungkin disempurnakan melalui diterapkannya pelayanan public
dalam bentuk e – government. Secara peraturan telah memungkinkan, dengan telah
ditetapkannya Undang – Undang No. 11 Tahun 2008 tentang Informasi dan Transaksi
Elektronik (ITE). Dengan terbitnya undang – undang ini, diharapkan bertambah
peluang untuk terjadinya transaksi pelayanan public melalui e – government.
Menurut pakar (Eko Indrajit, 2012),
e – government merupakan sebuah konsep memiliki prinsip – prinsip dasar yang
universal, tetapi pengertian maupun penerapannya pada suatu Negara tidak dapat
dipisahkan dari factor – factor :
sejarah, budaya, pendidikan, pandangan politik, kondisi ekonomi masing –
masing Negara.
Definisi lain menyatakan bahwa e –
government adalah suatu mekanisme interaksi baru antara pemerintah dengan
masyarakat dan pihak – pihak lain yang berkepentingan, dimana pemanfaatan TIK
dengan tujuan meningkatkan kualitas pelayanan public.
Paling tidak ada empat prinsip dasar
pelaksanaan e – government secara umum tercakup dalam visi e – government (Eko
Indrajit, 2012), yaitu :
1. Memberikan perhatian penuh pada
jenis – jenis pelayanan public, dengan memberikan prioritas :
a. Memiliki volume transaksi yang besar
dan melibatkan banyak sekali sumber daya manusia.
b. Membutuhkan interaksi dua arah
antara pemerintah dengan masyarakat.
c. Memungkinkan terjadinya kerjasama
antara pemerintah dengan swasta maupun LSM dan Perguruan Tinggi, setelah
menentukan jenis pelayanan, kemudian menentukan ukuran kinerja, yang menjadi
target manfaat sebelum menentukan total biaya investasi.
2. Membangun lingkungan yang kompetitif,
di mana sector swasta maupun lembaga swadaya masyarakat (LSM) dapat berperan
dalam hal pelayanan public. Sangat baik jika swasta dan LSM dapat bersaing
dengan pemerintah dan dapat melayani dengan lebih baik.
3. Memberikan penghargaan pada inovasi dan
memberi ruang kesempatan pada kesalahan.
4. Memusatkan pada pencapaian
efisiensi, yang dapat dinilai dengan besarnya manfaat dan pemasukan anggaran
dari penggunaan e – government.
5.
Jejak Ekologi merupakan analisis
nilai kebutuhan manusia di dalam ekosistem . Analisis ini membandingkan
kebutuhan manusia dengan kemampuan biosfer alam dalam mereproduksi sumber daya
. Nilai tersebut merepresentasikan jumlah lahan produktif biologis yang
diperlukan untuk mereproduksi sumber daya yang dikonsumsi manusia dan menyerap
limbah melalui teknologi yang berlaku. Dengan penilaian ini, maka dapat
diperkirakan berapa banyak sumber daya kota yang dibutuhkan untuk mendukung
kehidupan manusia.
Semakin
besar kiraan global hektar semakin besar jejak ekologi. Semakin besar jejak
ekologi, maksudnya sumber alam digunakan secara berleluasa, tanpa perancangan
yang baik. Ini berlaku kerana permintaan terhadap sumber alam terlalu banyak
mengatasi kemampuan bumi untuk menghasilkan semula bahan yang sudah digunakan. Jadi
jejak ekologi merupakan konsep yang sangat berkait dengan pembangunan yang
lestari serta penerapan konsep kehidupan yang mencintai alam. Pembangunan yang
terancang serta mementingkan konsep mencintai alam menjadi petunjuk jejak
ekologi yang rendah. Setiap aspek akan diambil kira untuk membangunkan sektor
ekonomi seperti tenaga yang digunakan, penggunaan ruang tanah, kesan akibat
penggunaan sumber alam tadi, dan langkah penyesuaian atau pemeliharaan serta
pemuliharaan untuk mengekalkan keseimbangan ekologi demi generasi akan datang.
6.
Alhamdulillah
saya sudah membuat blog, insya’ Allah saya akan mengelolanya dengan baik dan
saya mohon bimbingan dari Bapak.
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